Bhutan Geography

The northern region of Bhutan consists of an arc of glaciated mountain peaks with an extremely cold climate at the highest elevations. Most peaks in the north are over 7,000 m above sea level; the highest point is the Kula Kangri, at 7,553 m, and Gangkhar Puensum, at 7,541 m, has the distinction of being the highest unclimbed mountain in the world. Watered by snow-fed rivers, alpine valleys in this region provide pasture for livestock, tended by a sparse population of migratory shepherds. The Black Mountains in central Bhutan form a watershed between two major river systems: the Puna Tshang Chhu and the Drangme Chhu. Peaks in the Black Mountains range between 1,500 m and 2,700 m above sea level, and fast-flowing rivers have carved out deep gorges in the lower mountain areas. Woodlands of the central region provide most of Bhutan’s forest production. The Kuri Chu, Mangdi Chu, Drangme Chu, Puna Tsang Chu and Amo Chu are the main rivers of Bhutan, flowing through this region. Most of the population lives in the central highlands.

In the south, the Southern foot Hills are covered with dense, deciduous forests, alluvial lowland river valleys, and mountains up to around 1,500 m above sea level. The foothills descend into the subtropical Duars plain. Most of the Duars is located in India, although a 10–15 km wide strip extends into Bhutan. The Bhutan Duars is divided into two parts: the northern and the southern Duars. The northern Duars, which abuts the Himalayan foothills, has rugged, sloping terrain and dry, porous soil with dense vegetation and abundant wildlife. The southern Duars has moderately fertile soil, heavy savannah grass, dense, mixed jungle, and freshwater springs. Mountain rivers, fed by either the melting snow or the monsoon rains, empty into the Brahmaputra river in India. Over 70% of Bhutan is forested. The climate in Bhutan varies with altitude, from subtropical in the south to temperate in the highlands and polar-type climate, with year-round snow, in the north. Bhutan experiences five distinct seasons: summer, monsoon, autumn, winter and spring. Western Bhutan has the heavier monsoon rains; southern Bhutan has hot humid summers and cool winters; central and eastern Bhutan is temperate and drier than the west with warm summers and cool winters.

Mountain Peaks

Jhomolhari ( 7,314 metre's)

Jhomolhari (Jumolhari): 7,314 metres,
Mountain Chomolhari of the Himalaya has the border between Tibet and the Paro district of Bhutan. The name means Mountain of the Goddess in Bhutanese.

Gangkhar Puensum (7,570 metres)

Gangkhar Puensum:7,570 metres,
Gangkhar Puensum is the highest mountain in Bhutan and the highest unclimbed mountain in the world. Gangkhar Peunsum or Gankar Punzum means “White Peak of the Three Spiritual Brothers”.

Climate
Bhutan’s climate is as varied as its altitudes and, like most of Asia, is affected by monsoons. Western Bhutan is particularly affected by monsoons that bring between 60 and 90 percent of the region’s rainfall. The climate is humid and subtropical in the southern plains and foothills, temperate in the inner Himalayan valleys of the southern and central regions, and cold in the north, with year-round snow on the main Himalayan summits.
Temperatures vary according to elevation. Temperatures in Thimphu, located at 2,200 meters above sea level in west-central Bhutan, range from approximately 15° C to 26° C during the monsoon season of June through September but drop to between about -4° C and 16° C in January. Most of the central portion of the country experiences a cool, temperate climate year-round . In the south, a hot, humid climate helps maintain a fairly even temperature range of between 15° C and 30° C year-round, although temperatures sometimes reach 40° C in the valleys during the summer.

Annual precipitation ranges widely in various parts of the country. In the severe climate of the north, there is only about forty millimeters of annual precipitation–primarily snow. In the temperate central regions, a yearly average of around 1,000 millimeters is more common, and 7,800 millimeters per year has been registered at some locations in the humid, subtropical south, ensuring the thick tropical forest, or savanna. Thimphu experiences dry winter months (December through February) and almost no precipitation until March, when rainfall averages 20 millimeters a month and increases steadily thereafter to a high of 220 millimeters in August for a total annual rainfall of nearly 650 millimeters.

Bhutan’s generally dry spring starts in early March and lasts until mid-April. Summer weather commences in mid-April with occasional showers and continues through the pre-monsoon rains of late June. The summer monsoon lasts from late June through late September with heavy rains from the southwest. The monsoon weather, blocked from its northward progress by the Himalayas, brings heavy rains, high humidity, flash floods and landslides, and numerous misty, overcast days. Autumn, from late September or early October to late November, follows the rainy season. It is characterized by bright, sunny days and some early snowfalls at higher elevations. From late November until March, winter sets in, with frost throughout much of the country and snowfall common above elevations of 3,000 meters. The winter northeast monsoon brings gale-force winds down through high mountain passes, giving Bhutan its name– Drukyul, which in the Dzongkha language mean Land of the Thunder Dragon.

Dzongkhag (Districts)

Bhutan is divided in 20 Dzongkhags (districts)
1. Bumthang
2. Chukha (old spelling Chhukha)
3. Dagana
4. Gasa
5. Haa
6. Lhuntse (old spelling Lhuntshi)
7. Mongar
8. Paro
9. Pemagatshel (old spelling Pemagatsel)
10. Punakha
11. Samdrup Jongkhar
12. Samtse (old spelling Samchi)
13. Sarpang
14. Thimphu
15. Trashigang (old spelling Tashigang)
16. Trashiyangste
17. Trongsa (old spelling Tongsa)
18. Tsirang (old spelling Chirang)
19. Wangdue Phodrang (old spelling Wangdi Phodrang)
20. Zhemgang (old spelling Shemgang)

Bhutan's His Majesty's Kasho

His Majesty the King has issued a Kasho to the Speaker of the National Assembly and the Chairperson of the National Council to convene an Extraordinary Sitting of Parliament.

His Majesty's Kasho

“The Speaker has sought an Extraordinary Sitting for the deliberation of the Civil Service Bill 2009 and the Local Government (Amendment) Bill. These Bills could not be passed during Joint Sitting of the 3rd Session of Parliament.

The Constitution has a clear process for Passing of Bills under Article 13 and under Article 34.2(a). It would therefore not be correct or desirable to view Extraordinary Sittings as a normal extension of the process for Passing of Bills. It would distort the Constitutional process.

A Joint sitting on a Bill, as stipulated in the Constitution, serves to bring together different views, different political parties and the Houses of Parliament when there are disputes on a Bill. Under such a setting, keeping national interest above all else, it is assumed that as much consensus as possible will be formed on a Bill allowing for it to have the best chance to be passed during the final vote. If a Bill cannot be passed in a Joint Sitting, it signifies that there are serious differences that must be addressed through means other than another Joint Sitting.

Therefore, while the Speaker and the Chairman shall convene an Extraordinary Sitting of one day, it must be reiterated that it cannot be construed as a second Joint Sitting on the two Disputed Bills.

First, it is far more important to look beyond the two Bills in order to ascertain the causes of such deadlock and how in the future they might be prevented or minimized. This Parliament has the responsibility of setting the right precedents, laying a strong foundation and promoting the best practices of democracy, in the interest of our People and Country.

Second, the failure to pass the Local Government (Amendment) Act has not only delayed greatly the election of local government officials, but has seriously hampered the efficient implementation of the 10th plan. Therefore, given that disputes on the Bill are only a few specific clauses, the Joint Committee of the two Houses should seek to find a consensus position on the disputed clauses acceptable to their respective Houses, to enable the Extraordinary Sitting to vote on the Bill in such consensus form.

Third, the disagreements on the Civil Service Bill are not on individual clauses but on principle, and are not confined within Parliament. Therefore, its urgent passage during this Extraordinary Sitting will not guarantee that its implementation will be smooth, effective and above all beneficial to our People and Country. The Bill will benefit from further consultations among stakeholders. The draft based on these consultations may then be tabled in future through Parliamentary process, as mandated by the Constitution and relevant laws in force.

In elaboration upon all these issues, I send attached to this Kasho, a Message to both Houses of Parliament as per the Prerogatives provided for in the Constitution.”


Source: BBS

Bhutan Six Symbols of Longevity

The image of the Six Symbols of Longevity are of Chinese origin but appears often in Bhutanese secular art. The old man of long life is Shou-lao, the ancient Chinese God of Longevity. As Buddhism became prominent – the old man came to represent the contemplative sage who manifests the qualities of Amitayus –Vajrayana Buddhism’s deity of Longevity. The sage holds a crystal rosary symbolizing continuity and purity.

The tree of longevity under which the old man sits is the divine peach tree imbued with many medicinal qualities.

The conch-shell-shaped immutable rock of longevity has beneficial geomantic properties.

The stream of longevity springs forth from the rock. It’s pure water is the Nectar of Immortality which is contained in the vase held by Amitayus.

The cranes, believed to live long lives, are ancient Chinese longevity symbols. A pair of cranes symbolize happiness and fidelity.

It is said that deer are the only creatures capable of locating the plant of immortality. In this drawing the sage feeds a piece of the plant of immortality to the deer at his feet.

The image symbolizes the natural harmony of the recluse, who, untroubled by the cares of the world, lives a long life of contentment, peace and natural wealth.

Blue Poppy - National Flower of Bhutan

Blue poppy - National Flower of Bhutan

Blue poppies, the national flower, that once grew in abundance at the Chelela pass in Paro has been severely depleted in recent years according to the Royal Society for the Protection of Nature. “We spotted only three flowering and two seedlings at Chelela this June and July,” said the society’s ecologist and ornithologist, Rebecca Pradhan. According to the society there were about 150 blue poppies in the 1990s. In 2000, the number had dwindled to 20 and to 11 in 2002.

The society feels that the depletion is because of plundering by people from neighboring districts with particular interest in gardening. With the highway going through the pass it is easy for people to go and dig up the flowers which are about 5 to 10 minutes walk away from the road,” said Rebecca Pradhan.

Small holes left in the flowering area indicated that people had been digging up these plants according to the society. The society fears that this species might be wiped out totally from Chelela. However, no research has been done and the society does not know the implications it might have on the ecosystem.

Of the four types of blue poppies found in the area, the “Meconopsis napaulensis” is rare and a total wipe out of the species could lead to its extinction from that area too. “People do not recognize the different types of species. Based on their judgment of the colour they recognize it as blue poppies,” said Rebecca Pradhan. To the professional the different kinds can be differentiated by the characteristics of the plants like the shape of the leaves, the seed pod or the filament.

“People like the idea of having the blue poppies in their garden since it’s Bhutan’s national flower as well as a rare plant but they should keep in mind the social responsibility to protect and preserve what is in the country.” “Blue poppies, not even the general garden poppies can grow if they are transplanted,” said Rebecca Pradhan. “The best case would be to sow the seed.”
The blue poppy is found in the alpine region across the country and Bhutan has 13 types of Blue poppy of which one is endemic to Bhutan.

The meconopsis superba is found in Halakyula, Haa and the flowers are white in colour. This poppy is said to be one and a half metres tall and a plant has an average of about 30 flowers according to the society. The plant is monocarpic and it dies after flowering.

The society has put up a proposal to the government for monitoring the Chelela area according to the society.

Bhutan Paro Taktsang Monastery

Paro Taktsang "Tiger's Nest"

Taktsang is one of the holiest places in Bhutan the monastery is perched on a high granite cliff overlooking the northern Paro valley. This place is especially venerated because of its association with Guru Rinpoche, who is said to have flown to Paro Taktsang in the form of Dorji Drolo, mounted on a flaming dakini-tigress in the 747A.D.

Guru visited Bhutan for 3 times. His first visit to Bhutan 746 A.D from India was when he was invited to Bumthang to treat the Sindhu Raja, the ruler of Bumthang, who was seriously ill. The king was cured and was converted to Buddhism. He promised to return to Bhutan again to further propagate the Buddhist teachings.

A year later, Guru was invited to Tibet by King Thrisong Deutsen to assist him in the construction of the Samye Monastery. He traveled to Tibet, by tantric powers, he cleared away the demonic forces that were disturbing the construction of the monastery, and so the monastery was successfully completed.

During this visit in 747 A.D to Tibet, Guru Rinpoche decided to visit Bhutan again with his Tibetan consort Khandro Yeshi Tshogyel and Denma Tsemang. He travelled all over the country and blessed the people.

While in Singye Dzong inKurtoe, Guru is believed to have flown to Paro Taktsang in the form of Guru Dorji Drolo, the 8th and the final aspect that he assumed, mounting on a dakini-tigress. Before his arrival, the whole country was believed to have been inhabited by hostile evil spirits. On his arrival, he subdued eight categories of evil spirits and bounded them by solemn oath to be the protectors of teaching for all times to come.

He also concealed various forms of Dharma treasures including 3 teachings of Yoga to be discovered later by his disciples called Tertons (Treasure Discoverers). According to his biography ‘Yidkyi Munsel’, he meditated there for 4 months and blessed this place as the best among the sacred places (Ney).

Guru Rinpoche or Padmasambavha

He revealed the real form of Phurpai Kyilkhor (Vajrakiliya) and instructed upon Langchen Pelgyi Singye, one of his principle disciples (Gyalbang Nyernga) and his spiritual condort Khando Yeshi Tshogyel. The cave where Guru Rinpoche and many other renowned saints meditated is called “Drubkhang” (meditation room) or the “pelphug” (holy cave)
In Tibet at Chimphu, Guru gave initiations of the Kagyed text to his faithful disciples. His heart-disciple Langchen Pelgyi Singye who became renowned especially in the craft of subduing evil spirits was instructed to return to Paro Taktsang. Langchen Pelgyi Singye came to Taktsang in 853 A.D, and meditated in the Drubkhang for a long time. The place came to be known as Taktsang Pelphug after him. Then he went to Nepal and before dying, entrusted his body to the protector Damchen Dorji Legpa as his spiritual assistant. His body was brought back to Taktsang by Damchen Dorji Legpa and was hidden in the manner of a treasure (Terma) to be discovered later. His body is now enshrined in the deep rocks under the site of his Kudung chorten, which had been built years ago and was restored in 1982-1983.

According to the Neyig of Taktsang, compiled by Lopen Pemala, there are 9 holy caves (Phug) around the Taktsang, namely
1. Machiphug
2. Singyephug
3. Pelphug
4. Drolophug
5. Yoeselphug
6. Gadigphug
7. Choegyelphug
8. Kapaliphug
9. Phagmoiphug

Machigphug is the cave where Machig Lhabdron, incarnation of Khandro Yeshi Tshogyel, had meditated and is located above the ravine, before approaching the main Taktsang Goenpa. Singyephug can be seen nearby the small stream falling from the cliff. The stream is called Shelkarchu as it is believed that the string of glass beads were scattered around that area by Khandro Yeshi Tshogyel. The cave where Langchen Pelgyi Singye had meditated is called Pelphug seen in the main Taktsang monastery. Rest of the holy caves are said to be located somewhere behind the temple of Singye Samdrup, the protector deity of Taktsang.
Taktsang was under the charge of the Kathogpa lama since 14th century. Kathogpa lam Yeshi Bum (1245-1311), lived in the 15th century visited Taktsang where he intended to build a temple. His wish remained unfulfilled until 1508 when his nephew and disciple, Sonam Gyaltshen built the temple of Ugyen Tsemo above Taktsang.

In 1646, Zhabdrung invited Lopon Rigzin Nyingpo, the descedent of Terton Sangye Lingpa (1340-1396) from Kongpo in Tibet. Zhabdrung visited Taktsang in the company of Lopon Rigzin Nyingpo and took over the charge of Taktsang including Ugyen Tsemo from Kathogpa Lama.he appointed Jinpa Gyalthsen, brother of Desi Tenzin Rabgye, as Lama of Taktsang. Zhabdrung and Lopon Rigzin Nyingpo performed the prayer of Phurpai Kyikhor, which had been performed since then.

It is said that even though Zhabdrung had a wish to build a temple at the site where the Taktsang now stands, he could not as the construction of Paro Rinpung Dzong was underway. So he instructed Tenzin Rabgye, who was a minor at that time to build a temple. In 1692, on the command of Desi Tenzin Rabgye, the Paro Penlop Dragpa Gyaltshen built the main 2-stored temple around the Drubkhang in Taktsang and thus fulfilled Zhabdrung’s wish. It was from this time at Taktsang that system of performing annual prayer dedicated to Guru Rinpoche was introduced, which is even to this day conducted by the Tshenyid Division of the Central monastic Body.

Through numerous renovations and expansions over the following centuries, Taktsang grew into an intricate complex; some of its individual buildings are connected only by steep ladder ways. Between 1961 and 1965, the 34th Je Khenpo Sherdrup Yoezer renovated it. The latest additions were made between 1981 and 1982.
Different temples in Taktsang

• On the left of the entrance stair is the building which contains the Kudung ‘stupa’ of Langchen Pelgyi Singye whose body has been placed deep in the rocks under the site of the Kudung Chorten.

• On the inner left corner is the Dorlo Lhakhang, the temple dedicated to Guru Dorji Dorlo, which had been installed by Late Lama Sonam Zangpo. In the main building, there are three temples.

• The lower temple contains the cave where Guru Rinpoche and Pelgyi Singye meditated and contains a statue of Guru Dorji Drolo and statues of Phurpai Kyilkhor, which was said to have been erected by Niwari artisan Pentsa Dewa during the reign of Desi Tenzin Rabgye and of celestial palace of Guru Rinpoche (Zangtopelri).

• The middle temple “Guru Sungjoen Temple�?, temple of Guru who speaks because it is believed that when it is being transported to Taktsang, the statue of Guru spoke (sung)by itself. The most skilled artisans from Nepal, Pentsa Dewa, Dharma and Dharmashri erected the statue of Guru Sungjoen. This temple contains among other beautiful paintings of the eight manifestation of Guru, the cycle of Lama Gongdue and Tshepamed, the god of longevity.

• The upper temple “The Temple of the eight manifestations of Guru Rinpoche�?was built under the auspices of Myangmed Chungpo from Paro and contains other intresting mural paintings. One of them depicts vividly how Zhabdung Ngawang Namgyel vanquished his Tibetan enemies.

• Another building includes a temple dedicated to Singye Samdrup, the protector deity of Taktsang, Tshepamed, the god of longevity and Namthoesey (Vaosravana or Kubera), and god of wealth.
It is believed that more merit is gained if we meditate one minute in Taktsang than to meditate months together in other sacred places. Its sacred essence is that of Drubkhang/Pelphug, the holy cave in which Guru Rinpoche and many other renowned saints meditated, and also the body of Langchen Pelgyi Singye had been placed deep in the rocks under the site of Kudung Chorten. The Drubkhang is opened once a year during an annual ceremony, which is performed by the monk body for 21 days in the fifth Bhutanese month.

• The literary translation of the Bhutanese word Taktsang; Tak meaning ‘tiger’ and Tshang for ‘nest’, meaning “Tiger’s Nest�?.
• Located at 2950m, it is the most famous and sacred hanging cliff monastery in Bhutan.
• Seen from the road while heading towards Drukgyel Dzong (Ruined Fortress).
• Thangthong Gyalpo (1385-1464), the Iron bridge builder, also meditated here and discovered a Terma ‘treasure text’.
• Milarepa (1040-1123) is also said to have meditated in Taktsang.
• A hike to this temple from the riverbed below would normally take about 2-3 hours.
• Ponies can also be arranged till the viewpoint of the temple.

Bhutan Traveler's Tips

The people of Bhutan are like other people! Ask before you take their picture. Ask your guide before taking pictures in Museums or Public Buildings. There are some places that are off limits to visitors for religious and safety reasons. Ask your guide so you can always be sure. And please never hand out candy or small trinkets to children. Bhutanese people are very proud of the fact that there are no beggars in Bhutan and wish not to encourage this behavior of expecting anything from our guests. Small gifts to people you stay with and a tip for your guide are fine.

What should I and what can I bring with me?

1. Good walking shoes
2. Sunglasses
3. Sunscreen (highest possible)
4. Headgear for sunny days
5. Bug repellent
6. Cotton clothing for summer days, light woolen clothes for evenings. Heavy woolens for winter.
7. Shorts for hiking and walking around town are fine. Out of respect, please don’t wear shorts in public buildings or monasteries. Have a pair of long pants or longer skirt for these locations.
8. Toiletries are not provided in most hotels
9. Prescription medications

For trekkers, be sure to bring the following:

1. Sturdy and “broken-in” trekking/hiking boots
2. Sunglasses
3. Sunscreen (highest possible)
4. Headgear
5. Raincoat
6. Medium to heavy sleeping bag (tents are provided)
7. Torch (Flashlight)
8. Insect repellent

Maximum recommended load for trekking is 25Kgs (55lbs.), or 1/5th of body weight. Comfortable casual clothes are great, but you may want to bring some semi-formal clothes (jacket and tie for men, dresses for women) just incase if you coincide with a festival, which is a social function. Even in the summer, it can be cool in Bhutan, and it is very cold in winter. Days can be quite warm, especially in the lowlands of Punakha and Phuentsholing, and you could start off driving in the cold of dawn and become uncomfortable midmorning. Use the layering system, starting with thermal underwear and adding a shirt, pile jacket and wind-breaker (or parka) as necessary. All hotels provide sheets, blankets or quilt, and a pillow. Unless you are trekking, you won’t need to carry a sleeping bag. Hotels provide heating in winter, either an electric heater or a wood stove which will keep you quite warm.

What will the weather be like in Bhutan? Climate: Days are normally warm. Nights can be quite chilly. In winter, the temperature is below freezing point. Monsoon shower in summer with heavy rains in July and August.

Preventing Acute Altitude Sickness

* Avoid alcohol, sleeping pills or narcotics. They may decrease ventilation, intensify hypoxemia and make symptoms worse.
* Drink plenty of fluids.
* Avoid heavy exercise; mild exercise is okay.
* Diamox® (acetazolamide) 125 mg. tablets taken twice a day is F.D.A. approved for prevention and treatment of A.M.S. Although it originally was released as a diuretic (water pill), it also helps you breath deeper and faster. This allows you to get more oxygen. Diamox is especially helpful with the sleeping problems and other symptoms of A.M.S.
* Home oxygen will relieve symptoms. Home oxygen is safe, cheap and easy to use. It can be used at night when symptoms are worse and off and on during the day as symptoms dictate.
* If nothing else works, you can return to lower altitude. Going down to Denver will always relieve the symptoms of A.M.S.

Acute mountain sickness is caused by a lack of oxygen when traveling to higher elevations. This usually occurs in individuals exposed to an altitude over 7,000 feet (2,100 m) who have not had a chance to acclimate to the altitude before engaging in physical activities. (Rare below 12,000 feet) Mountain climbers, trekkers, skiers, and travelers to the Andes or Himalayas are at greatest risk. While individual tolerance varies, symptoms usually appear in several hours, with those in poor physical condition being most susceptible. Headache, fatigue, shortness of breath, nausea, and poor appetite occur initially. Inability to sleep is also frequently reported. In more severe cases thinking and judgment may become impaired. An uncommon but potentially fatal complication called high altitude pulmonary edema, caused by fluid build-up in the lungs, can also occur.

The symptoms of acute mountain sickness can be prevented or minimized by gradually ascending (less than 500 meters/day) over several days to give your body a chance to acclimate to the higher altitude. Taking the prescription medication Diamox (acetazolamide) 250 mg three times a day has been shown to speed up the acclimatization process and can be taken shortly before and during the ascent. Do not take this medication if you are allergic to sulfa drugs. This medication is a mild diuretic and may work by changing the body’s acid-base balance and stimulating breathing. Dexamethasone 8 mg once a day has also been shown to be effective. However, this steroid medication may have more adverse effects. Once symptoms occur, they usually improve over several days without treatment. However, if they become severe, they can be relieved with the administration of oxygen or descent to a lower altitude.

Essential Extras:
A folding umbrella; especially if traveling during the monsoons of mid June to late September. Rain is possible any time, and is almost certain from June through August.
Be sure to carry ear plugs (and spares) for when you sleep. There are a lot of dogs in Bhutan as the Bhutanese consider them next mankind in the cycle of life. These dogs don’t realize this and will sometimes bark at night.
There are occasional electric outages throughout the country; so you should always keep a torch (flashlight) beside your bed.
Make sure you bring a pair of good sunglasses for protection in the high altitude.
A Swiss style army knife is a good thing to bring, but with the recent concerns over air travel you may want to bring a folding utility tool such as a Leather man and make sure to put it in you check-in luggage.
Bring a small alarm clock if you need help waking up after all those barking dogs. Not all hotel rooms have telephones or wake-up service. Our guides will make sure you are not late for anything.

Packing:
If you are on a cultural tour, it’s OK to bring a hard suitcase, though a soft bag is more versatile and easier to pack into the luggage space of a vehicle. For those trekking in Bhutan a strong duffel bag as luggage is best. You will also want a small rucksack (back pack) or waist pack to carry your camera, water bottle and other essentials in the vehicle and when you are walking around town or visiting monuments.

Lord Buddha

Medicinal Buddha

SHAKYAMUNI BUDDHA’S LIFE STORY
Prince Siddharta Gautama was born some 2,500 years ago as a prince in what is now called Lumbini in Nepal. At his birth, many special signs appeared. His father asked a sage living in his kingdom for advice on his son. The sage predicted that Gautama would become either a great King or a great spiritual teacher.
The King wanted his son to be his successor and tried to keep him far away from all matters of life that could incline him to a spiritual life. Gautama usually spent his life in his father’s palace, surrounded by all the possible luxuries of the time. He proved to be a special child, being quite intelligent as well as an excellent sportsman. He married to a beautiful woman he loved, and they had a son.
When Gautama was 29 years old, he discovered there was much suffering in the world around him. Traditionally it is explained that he suddenly recognised the problems of sickness, old age and death when visiting the city. Being shocked by the suffering of all living beings, he decided to search for way to end it. He left his wife and child, the palace and even his royal clothes, and started out on a spiritual quest.
Gautama studied under various teachers and followed their practices until he mastered them all. His first teacher was Alara Kalama who taught a form of meditation leading to an exalted form of absorption called “the state of no-thingness”, a state without moral or cognitive dimension. Gautama saw this was not going to solve suffering, and continued his search.
The next teacher was Udraka Ramaputra who taught him meditative absorption leading to “the state of neither perception nor non-perception�?. Again, Gautama realised this was not the state he was looking for. (Both Alara and Udraka are by some scholars considered to be Jain followers.)
Next, he tried extreme ascetic practices at Uruvilva in North India, with five other ascetics who turned into his followers. In the end, Gautama nearly died of starvation.
After about six years of searching, he realised that just wearing down his body did not generate new insights, but rather leads to weakness and self-destruction. When he decided to give up extreme asceticism, his five students left him.
He then sat down in a place now called Bodhgaya (North India) under a Bodhi-tree and decided not to get up anymore until he discovered the truth. Just a short time later, he became a fully enlightened Buddha. This means that he actualised all positive potentials of a sentient being and rid himself of all negative qualities. With this, he realised the true nature of existence and suffering (emptiness), and how suffering can be ended. (On the right is a descendant of the original Bodhi tree in Bodhgaya.)
Seven weeks after enlightenment, the Buddha gave his first discourse in Sarnath, near Varanasi (see image below right). Here he taught the 4 Noble Truths. The Buddha continued to teach during his life, until passing away at the age of 81.
The Buddha once summarised his entire teachings in one sentence:
“I teach about suffering and the way to end it”.
The main disciples of the Buddha are also known as the Great Arhants: Shariputra, known for his understanding of the Abidharma teachings; Maudgalyayana, known for his psychic powers; Mahakashyapa, the great ascetic; and Ananda, the personal attendant of the Buddha who recalled every word the Buddha spoke.
The Buddha’s life is also sometimes summarized in the so called ‘Twelve Deeds of the Buddha’.

Bhutan Festival Etiquette

At various times throughout the year, annual festivals known as “Tshechus” take place around the country, but there are other festivals too. Tshechus are festivals extolling the great deeds of the Buddhist Saint, Padmasambhava, popularly known as “Guru Rinpoche” in our mountain kingdom. All of Guru Rinpoche’ s great deeds are believed to have taken place on the 10th day of the month, which is the meaning of the word Tshechu, and all Tshechus do in fact take place/begin on 10th days. All the districts, dzongs and a large number of villages in the east, hold annual Tshechus, which attract people from far and wide.
Tshechus are celebrated for several days (usually between three and five, depending on where taking place) and are the occasion for dances that are clearly defined in religious content. They can be performed by monks, laymen or gomchens and the repertory is more or less the same everywhere.
Certain Tshechus end with the veneration of a huge appliqué Thanka, called a “thongdroel”. The thongdroel is unveiled at dawn to bring enlightenment to all who view it. Festival goers believe that by simply viewing this thongdroel, they can be delivered from the cycle of birth and rebirth, which is the ultimate aim of Buddhism.
Some Tshechus also have a “wang”, a collective verbal blessing given by a high lama. Colored threads are distributed, and people tie them around their necks as witness to the blessing. Sometimes the wang is called “mewang” meaning “blessing by fire” which burns away their impurities.
Atsaras are clowns whose expressive masks and postures are an indispensable element in any religious festival. They confront the monks, toss out salacious jokes, and distract the crowd with their antics whenever the religious dances begin to grow tedious. Believed to represent Acharyas, religious masters of India, they are the only people permitted to mock religion in a society where sacred matters are treated with the highest respect. For a few days, these popular entertainers are allowed the freedom to express a formulaic challenge within an established framework that does not, however, upset the social and religious order.
Some religious festivals include only a few dances and consist mostly of readings from a particular text. On these occasions, villagers assemble in a temple and participate in the prayers while at the same time drinking strong alcoholic beverages. Each village takes pride in its annual religious festival, and any villagers who have gone to live in the city are expected to come back home for it. Such villagers will themselves sponsor a large part of the cost of mounting the festival.
For the Bhutanese, attendance at religious festivals offers an opportunity to become immersed in the meaning of their religion and to gain much merit. The festivals are also occasions for seeing people, and for being seen, for social exchanges, and for flaunting success. People bring out their finest clothes, their most beautiful jewelry, and enjoy picnics with abundant alcohol and meat. Men and women joke and flirt with one another. An atmosphere of convivial, slightly ribald good humor prevails.
Village festivals: Many small village festivals are held in the winter months. The weather is very settled across Bhutan at this time of the year. The clear blue skies and crisp air offer splendid opportunities for the committed photographer, especially for those using slide medium. Please contact Bhutan Wilderness Travels for dates/places of forthcoming winter festivals. A winter journey to seldom visited eastern Bhutan, with participation in such a festival, would be an unforgettable experience.
FESTIVAL ETIQUETTE

Festivals are religious events. The ground where they are held is purified and consecrated by lamas, so when you are watching a festival you are, in essence, on the perimeter of an outdoor religious ground. The conduct of the onlooker should be governed with this in mind. The dancers, whether monks or laymen, are in a state of meditation. They transform themselves into the deities which they represent on the dance ground. They generate a spiritual power, which cleanses, purifies, enlightens and blesses the spectators.
With this in mind, it should be clear that obtrusive, disrespectful or discourteous behavior is out of place. Remember, too, that smoking is not permitted in public places in Bhutan. The dance ground is not a place to eat, drink, talk or laugh loudly at inappropriate times, flash cameras or intrude on the dance space. Common courtesy should rule one’s action when photographing dances or onlookers.
Festivals are not pageants or entertainment events. They are not held as tourist attractions. They are genuine manifestations of religious traditions thousands of years old which outsiders are given the privilege of witnessing. We would like to see that privilege retained, without in any way impairing or infringing on the beauty and sacredness of the ritual.
Please bear in mind that some past actions of unthinking visitors have caused shock and dismay to the local people. Any recurrence of such unfortunate events may lead to future restrictions on attendance at festivals. We hope that our tour members will always display courtesy, sensitivity and respect to the people of Bhutan who have welcomed them to attend these beautiful and sacred events, and will visibly demonstrate their respect by dressing as well as their circumstances permit on such occasions.

Bhutan Emptiness

What is emptiness?

Emptiness (shunyata) is the reality of the existence of ourselves, and all the phenomena around us. According to the Buddhist point of view, seeking reality and seeking liberation amount to the same thing. The person who doesn’t want to seek reality doesn’t really want to seek liberation, and is just confused.

If you seek reality and you think that it has to be taught to you by a Tibetan Lama, that you have to look for it outside yourself, in another place - maybe Shangrila! - then you are mistaken. You cannot seek reality outside yourself because you are reality. Perhaps you think that your life, your reality was made by society, by your friends? If you think that way you are far from reality. if you think that your existence, your life was made by somebody else it means that you are not taking the responsibility to understand reality.

You have to see that your attitudes, your view of the world, of your experiences, of your girlfriend or boyfriend, of your own self, are all the interpretation of your own mind, your own imagination. They are your own projection, your mind literally made them up. If you don’t understand this then you have very little chance of understanding emptiness.

This is not just the Buddhist view but also the experience of Western physicists and philosophers - they have researched into reality too. Physicists look and look and look and they simply cannot find one entity that exists in a permanent, stable way: this is the Western experience of emptiness.

If you can imagine that then you will not have any concrete concepts; if you understand this experience of physicists then you will let go of your worldly problems - but you don’t want to understand.

It seems to me that we twentieth century people are against nature, against reality, the very opposite of reality. Each moment we build up our artificial, polluted ego; we cover ourselves with heavy ego blankets - one, two, ten, one hundred blankets against nature, against reality. Modern life is the product of the intellectual mind, and we create it. The intellectual mind is superstition. We don’t understand reality, and the intellectual life that we lead keeps us far from reality.

So we don’t accept who we are. We are always looking to cover ourselves with thick blankets and say “this is me”. We hide our own reality and run away from natural beauty, completely neglecting it. By not touching our reality, our modern life becomes so complicated and we create problems with our superstition. We are like a spider spinning his web, climbing on his thread then falling down; climbing up again and falling down again. In the same way we build our own intellectual web, a way of life, that is so complicated, that doesn’t touch reality, that is so difficult to live in. This construction arises from our own mind and does not arise from anything else.

If I told you that you are nothing, you are zero, that you are nothing that you think you are, then you would be shocked. “What is this monk saying?” But what if I say that it is the truth! In fact you are non duality, non self existence. You do not exist, relatively or absolutely, as you think you do. If you really understood this then you would become more realistic and you would really gain satisfaction and peace. But as long as you hold on to the fantasy, concrete conception of yourself and project this wrong conception onto your environment, then no way will you understand reality.

In Western cities nowadays, you can see, the older you are the more problems you have. When we are young, not so many problems, but then there are drugs and sex, and eventually they become dissatisfying, then more depression, more depression. So, as your body becomes bigger and your brain becomes wider, you have more and more problems and become more and more depressed. The more money you have the more problems come. You can see this.
You only take care of your body, you never take care of your mind, and the result of this imbalance is depression. For most western people this is the case: only the body is reality and they don’t care about the existence of the mind, the soul, the consciousness. They don’t believe they can change their minds. They can change their nose through an operation but they don’t believe they can change thei And when you believe this then no way can you resolve your depression.

Our thoughts, our mind or consciousness are mental energy and cannot be localised in the body. It cannot be touched; it has no form and does not travel in time and space. We cannot touch it or grasp it.

What is important to understand is that the view you have of yourself and the view you have of your environment are based on your own mind; they are the projection of your mind and that is why they are not reality.

I will give you a good example. When a western man or woman looks for a girl or boyfriend, there is this research energy from both sides and when suddenly they see each other they make up an incredible story. “Oh, so beautiful! Nothing wrong inside or outside”. They build up a perfect myth. They push and push., the mind makes it all up. If they are Christian they say, “Oh, he looks just like Jesus. She looks just like an angel. So nice, so pure”. Actually, they are just projecting their own fantasies onto each other.

If she is Hindu, then he would say, “Oh, she looks like Kali, like Mother Earth, like my universal mother”…and if you are Buddhist you fold your hands and say, “Oh, she is a dakini and she is showing me the true nature of all things”. You understand? “When I am near her she gives me energy, energy. Before, I was so lazy, I couldn’t move, I was like a dead person. But now whenever I go near her I can’t believe my energy!” I tell you all this is superstitious interpretation. You think that she is your spiritual friend and all she does is really perfect, even her kaka and pee pee are so pure! Excuse me, perhaps I shouldn’t talk like this - I am a Buddhist monk! But when we speak about Buddhism, about reality then we have to speak practically, from daily life, about what is earthy, what we can touch and see, not just get caught up in concepts.

What I mean is this: you should recognise how every appearance in your daily lift is in fact a false projection of your own mind. Your own mind makes it up and becomes an obstacle to touching reality. This is why, our entire life, no matter what kind of life we have, it is a disaster. If you have a rich life, your life is a disaster. If you have a middle class life, your life is a disaster. If you have a poor life, your life is even more of a disaster! You become a monk and your life is a disaster. If you become a Christian your life is a disaster. A Buddhist, disaster… Be honest. Be honest with yourself.

In fact reality is very simple. The simplicity of the mind can touch reality, and meditation is something that goes beyond the intellect and brings the mind into its natural state. We have the pure nature already, this reality exists in us now, it is born with us… The essence of your consciousness, your truth, your soul is not absolutely negative, it does not have an essentially negative character. Our mind is like the sky and our problems of ego grasping and self pity are like clouds. Eventually they all pass and disappear. You should not believe, “I am my ego, I am my problems, therefore I cannot solve my problems”. Wrong. You can see. Sometimes we are so clear in our life we are almost radiating. We can have this experience right now. Now!
So it is wrong to think that we are always a disaster. Sometimes we are clean clear, sometimes we are a disaster. So, stay in meditation, just keep in that clean clear state as much as possible. All of us can have that clean clear state of mind.

Actually, maybe this is the moment to meditate. My feeling is to meditate now. So, close your eyes, don’t think, “I am meditating”, just close your eyes and whatever view is there, whatever view is there in your mind, just be aware. Don’t interpret good, bad. Just be like a light - light doesn’t think “I like this, I like that”. It is just a light. Whatever is in your consciousness, whatever experience, just be aware. That is all.

Whatever your experience at the moment, whatever your colour, whatever appearance is there, just stay aware. Be aware. If it’s black energy, then that black energy is clean clear. If it’s white energy, just feel that clean clear state. Be aware of whatever is happening. No interpretation … Don’t try to hold onto something or to reject something. By Lama Thubten Yeshe

Bhutan Glossary

Bhutan Holiday makers can’t find much in the way of Bhutanese phrase books on the web, so its quite possible that the following is the best resource available! Very, very few foreigners manage to learn more than a couple words of Dzongkha, National language of Bhutan and any effort will be sincerely appreciated. You might even get local prices at the hotel bar, especially if you can speak little local language.Hello = Kuzu Zangpo (La) - This is the basic greeting, regardless of time of day. “La” denotes respect and is extra polite.
Bhutan = Druk Yul
Thank you = Kadinchey
Yes = Ing
No = Men
Good luck = Tashi Delek
Delicious = Zhimbe If something is very delicious, say “Name Same Shimbe”.
How are you? = Cheu ga de be yoe?
I’m fine = Nga leshembe yoe.
I = Nga
My = Nga gee
I’m from America = Nga America le ein.
You = Cheu
Where are you from? = Chee ga tay le mo
A meal = Dto
Have you eaten? = Cheu dto zaigah
I’m hungry = Nga dto khe chi
Pretty girl = bum Jarim Du
Do you have a girl/boyfriend? = Cheu luh aru garu yeh gah
Let’s be friends = Nga da choe charo bay gay
I love you = Nga cheu lu ga
See you again = Log jay gay
Water = Chu
River = Chu
Mango juice = Am chu kuleh juice
Milk = Ohm
Sugar = Goram
Butter = Ma
Meat = Sha
Beef = No sha
Pork = Phak sha
Chili Peppers = Ema
Chili Cheese = Ema Datsi
Mouth = Kha
Nose = Happa
Eye = Mitto
Belly = Phow
Ass = Abou
The hot chilies I ate make my ass burn = Ema sawachen abou tsaome.
Where is the toilet? = Chopsa gateh mo
I like Bhutan = Nga Druk lu gai.
Mother = Ai
Father = Apa
How old are you? = Cheu gi loh gam chi mo
Tomorrow I’m going to… = Naba …. Jo ni.
Black Necked Crane = Thung Thung kar mon.
Animal = Semchen
Cat = Jili
Dog = Rochi
Goodbye = Legshombay joen

Bhutan Bhuddhism

WHAT IS BUDDHISM?

This question is easier asked than answered. Lama Anagorika Govinda expressed it as follows in ‘Living Buddhism for the West’:

“Thus we could say that the Buddha’s Dharma is, as experience and as a way to practical realization, a religion; as the intellectual formulation of this experience, a philosophy; and as a result of self-observation and analysis, a psychology.
Whoever treads this path acquires a norm of behavior that is not dictated from without, but is the result of an inner process of maturation and that we - regarding it from without - can call morality.

THE KALAMA DISCOURSE

One time, when the Buddha passed through the city of Kalama, people asked him: “So many teachers were here, and all of them gave us excellent teachings, but they contradict each other. What should we do? The Buddha then gave the so-called Kalama Discourse and expounded on ten aspects that one should consider when listening to spiritual teachings.
Summarized, the Buddha said:

“Do not believe a spiritual teaching just because:

1. it is repeatedly recited,
2. it is written in a scripture,
3. it was handed from guru to disciple,
4. everyone around you believes it,
5. it has supernatural qualities,
6. it fits my beliefs anyway,
7. it sounds rational to me,
8. it is taught by a respectable person,
9. it was said to be the truth by the teacher,
10. one must defend it or fight for it.

However, only when it agrees with your experience and reason, and when it is conducive to the good and gain of oneself and all others, then one should accept the teachings, and live up to them.
Dharma-Wheel (symbol of the Buddha) with two Deer or, as the Buddha taught:

“My teaching is not a philosophy. It is the result of direct experience…
My teaching is a means of practice, not something to hold onto or worship.
My teaching is like a raft used to cross the river.
Only a fool would carry the raft around after he had already reached the other shore of liberation.

“If you were to follow the Dharma purely out of love for me or because you respect me, I would not accept you as disciple. But if you follow the Dharma because you have yourself experienced its truth, because you understand and act accordingly - only under these conditions have you the right to call yourself a disciple of the Exalted One.

A SPIRITUAL PATH

“The most important thing is not to get trapped in what I see everywhere in the West, a “shopping mentality” : shopping around from master to master, teaching to teaching, without any continuity or real, sustained dedication to any one discipline. Nearly all the great spiritual masters of all traditions agree that the essential thing is to master one way, one path to the truth, by following one tradition with all your heart and mind to the end of the spiritual journey, while remaining open and respectful towards the insights of all others. …
The modern faddish idea that we can always keep all our options open and so never need commit ourselves to anything is one of the greatest and most dangerous delusions of our culture, and one of the ego’s most effective ways of sabotaging our spiritual search.

Few people are capable of wholehearted commitment, and that is why so few people experience a real transformation through their spiritual practice. It is a matter of giving up our own viewpoints, of letting go of opinions and preconceived ideas, and instead following the Buddha’s guidelines. Although this sounds simple, in practice most people find it extremely difficult. Their ingrained viewpoints, based on deductions derived from cultural and social norms, are in the way.

We must also remember that heart and mind need to work together. If we understand something rationally but don’t love it, there is no completeness for us, no fulfillment. If we love something but don’t understand it, the same applies. If we have a relationship with another person, and we love the person but don’t understand him or her, the relationship is incomplete; if we understand that person but don’t love him or her, it is equally unfulfilled. How much more so on our spiritual path. We have to understand the meaning of the teaching and also love it. In the beginning our understanding will only be partial, so our love has to be even greater.
“Three qualities enable people to understand the teachings: objectivity, which means an open mind; intelligence, which is the critical faculty to discern the real meaning by checking the teachings of Buddha; and interest and commitment, which means enthusiasm.
Unfortunately, there are questionable teachers, traditions and centers in the Buddhist world. Unfortunately, the only website that simply listed them was pestered out of existence, so please, do use your critical intellect to analyse and test them as the Buddha advised, before you get seriously involved. Putting your trust in a spiritual teacher is not a small matter, see also the page on a Spiritual Teacher.

FAITH
Buddhism appears to put less emphasis on faith than many other religions, still the very first words of Shakyamuni Buddha as a teacher were:
“Opened are the gates of immortality, you that have ears to hear, release your faith.”
In Buddhism, faith is defined as: a positive attitude to virtue and objects worthy of respect. It is said to be the doorway for all positive qualities. Several different types of faith are distinguished:
a. Uncritical faith: motivation is for no apparent reason
b. Longing faith: motivation is led by an emotionally unstable mind
c. Conviction: motivated by sound reasoning
Although the first two types of faith may be helpful, it is explained that they may easily collapse ‘when the going gets rough’. In other words, the uncritical and longing faith may easily be forgotten when difficult decisions are to be made. Only the conviction which has arisen from a sound understanding will form a good basis to work with. This is one of the reasons why most Buddhist schools emphasise critical study and proper understanding from the beginning onwards.

Bhutan Bhuddhism

WHAT IS BUDDHISM?

This question is easier asked than answered. Lama Anagorika Govinda expressed it as follows in ‘Living Buddhism for the West’:

“Thus we could say that the Buddha’s Dharma is, as experience and as a way to practical realization, a religion; as the intellectual formulation of this experience, a philosophy; and as a result of self-observation and analysis, a psychology.
Whoever treads this path acquires a norm of behavior that is not dictated from without, but is the result of an inner process of maturation and that we - regarding it from without - can call morality.

THE KALAMA DISCOURSE

One time, when the Buddha passed through the city of Kalama, people asked him: “So many teachers were here, and all of them gave us excellent teachings, but they contradict each other. What should we do? The Buddha then gave the so-called Kalama Discourse and expounded on ten aspects that one should consider when listening to spiritual teachings.
Summarized, the Buddha said:

“Do not believe a spiritual teaching just because:

1. it is repeatedly recited,
2. it is written in a scripture,
3. it was handed from guru to disciple,
4. everyone around you believes it,
5. it has supernatural qualities,
6. it fits my beliefs anyway,
7. it sounds rational to me,
8. it is taught by a respectable person,
9. it was said to be the truth by the teacher,
10. one must defend it or fight for it.

However, only when it agrees with your experience and reason, and when it is conducive to the good and gain of oneself and all others, then one should accept the teachings, and live up to them.
Dharma-Wheel (symbol of the Buddha) with two Deer or, as the Buddha taught:

“My teaching is not a philosophy. It is the result of direct experience…
My teaching is a means of practice, not something to hold onto or worship.
My teaching is like a raft used to cross the river.
Only a fool would carry the raft around after he had already reached the other shore of liberation.

“If you were to follow the Dharma purely out of love for me or because you respect me, I would not accept you as disciple. But if you follow the Dharma because you have yourself experienced its truth, because you understand and act accordingly - only under these conditions have you the right to call yourself a disciple of the Exalted One.

A SPIRITUAL PATH

“The most important thing is not to get trapped in what I see everywhere in the West, a “shopping mentality” : shopping around from master to master, teaching to teaching, without any continuity or real, sustained dedication to any one discipline. Nearly all the great spiritual masters of all traditions agree that the essential thing is to master one way, one path to the truth, by following one tradition with all your heart and mind to the end of the spiritual journey, while remaining open and respectful towards the insights of all others. …
The modern faddish idea that we can always keep all our options open and so never need commit ourselves to anything is one of the greatest and most dangerous delusions of our culture, and one of the ego’s most effective ways of sabotaging our spiritual search.

Few people are capable of wholehearted commitment, and that is why so few people experience a real transformation through their spiritual practice. It is a matter of giving up our own viewpoints, of letting go of opinions and preconceived ideas, and instead following the Buddha’s guidelines. Although this sounds simple, in practice most people find it extremely difficult. Their ingrained viewpoints, based on deductions derived from cultural and social norms, are in the way.

We must also remember that heart and mind need to work together. If we understand something rationally but don’t love it, there is no completeness for us, no fulfillment. If we love something but don’t understand it, the same applies. If we have a relationship with another person, and we love the person but don’t understand him or her, the relationship is incomplete; if we understand that person but don’t love him or her, it is equally unfulfilled. How much more so on our spiritual path. We have to understand the meaning of the teaching and also love it. In the beginning our understanding will only be partial, so our love has to be even greater.
“Three qualities enable people to understand the teachings: objectivity, which means an open mind; intelligence, which is the critical faculty to discern the real meaning by checking the teachings of Buddha; and interest and commitment, which means enthusiasm.
Unfortunately, there are questionable teachers, traditions and centers in the Buddhist world. Unfortunately, the only website that simply listed them was pestered out of existence, so please, do use your critical intellect to analyse and test them as the Buddha advised, before you get seriously involved. Putting your trust in a spiritual teacher is not a small matter, see also the page on a Spiritual Teacher.

FAITH
Buddhism appears to put less emphasis on faith than many other religions, still the very first words of Shakyamuni Buddha as a teacher were:
“Opened are the gates of immortality, you that have ears to hear, release your faith.”
In Buddhism, faith is defined as: a positive attitude to virtue and objects worthy of respect. It is said to be the doorway for all positive qualities. Several different types of faith are distinguished:
a. Uncritical faith: motivation is for no apparent reason
b. Longing faith: motivation is led by an emotionally unstable mind
c. Conviction: motivated by sound reasoning
Although the first two types of faith may be helpful, it is explained that they may easily collapse ‘when the going gets rough’. In other words, the uncritical and longing faith may easily be forgotten when difficult decisions are to be made. Only the conviction which has arisen from a sound understanding will form a good basis to work with. This is one of the reasons why most Buddhist schools emphasise critical study and proper understanding from the beginning onwards.